Ali
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Ali ibn Abi Talib (Arabic: علي بن أبي طالب) (ca. 599 – January 661 CE) was an early Islamic leader. He is seen by the Sunnis as the fourth and last of the Khulafā' ar-Rāshidūn (rightly guided caliphs). Muslims of Shi'a persuasion consider him as the first imam and the first rightful caliph. Caliph Ali was the cousin of Muhammad, and after marriage to Fatima, he also became the prophet's son-in-law.
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Birth
Ali was born in Mecca, in the Hijaz region of central western Arabia, sometime around 599 CE (the year is an approximation only).
Multiple reports describe him being born inside the Kaaba, the most sacred site in Islam, and no records of alternative birth places are known. However, many non-Muslim scholars and a fair number of non-scholar Muslims are skeptical or dissmissive about those narrations. This is discussed in People reported to be born in the Kaaba.
Accoring to Muslims sources, his mother wanted to name the child after her father, Asad. However, Ali was given an auspicious name, derived from one of 99 Names of God, Al-Ali (The Exalted).
Early life
Ali's father, Abu Talib, was a member of the powerful tribe of the Quraysh, and an uncle to the young Muhammad. When Muhammad was orphaned and then lost his grandfather, Abu Talib took Muhammad into his house. Ali and Muhammad were thus cousins raised as brothers, with Ali in the role of a younger brother, looking up to Muhammad and ready to follow his lead. When Muhammad reported that he had received a divine revelation, a claim that Islamic sources indicate was initially greeted with derision, Ali believed in him and professed Islam. Many Muslims -- the Shi'a in particular -- believe that he was the first male to convert to Islam (this is discussed at length in Identity of first male Muslim)
Ali stood firm in support of Muhammad during the years of persecution of Muslims in Mecca. In 622 CE, the year of Muhammad's Hijrah (Migration) to Yathrib, later Medina, according to Islamic sources, Ali risked his life by sleeping in Muhammad's bed to impersonate him and thwart an assassination plot, so that his cousin could flee in safety. Ali survived the plot, but risked his life again by staying in Makkah to carry out Muhammad's instructions: to restore to their owners all the goods and properties that had been entrusted to Muhammad for safekeeping.
Ali in Madinah
The small community of Muslim immigrants in Medina, the Muhajirun, were at first extremely poor. They had no land, no houses, and lived on the charity of the Madinans who had converted to Islam (the Ansar). They hired themselves out for labor. Ali shared in all the labor and hardships of the community.
Ali first distinguished himself as a warrior in 624 CE, at the Battle of Badr. He defeated the Banu Umayyed champion Walid ibn Utba as well as many other Meccan soldiers. He was publicly praised by Muhammad. After this, he was emboldened to ask for the hand of Fatima Zahra, Muhammad's daughter by Khadijah, in marriage. Fatima and Muhammad consented, and the marriage was solemnized two months after the battle [1].
Ali was also prominent on the battlefield of Uhud. He is said to have received seventeen wounds in the battle.
For the ten years that Muhammad led the community in Medina, Ali was extremely active in his cousin's service, serving in his armies, leading parties of warriors on raids, carrying messages and orders. With the exception of Tabuk, Ali joined all of Muhammad's battles and expeditions. As Muhammad's son-in-law and one of his lieutenants, Ali was a person of authority and standing in the Muslim community.
In 9 A.H. (630 CE), Muhammad prepared to lead an expedition against Syria. This was the well-known expedition of Tabuk. He did not want to leave Madinah, the capital city, unguarded, and decided to leave Ali behind as his deputy. Muhammad is reputed to have said:
- "Will you not be pleased that you will be to me like Aaron to Moses? But there will be no prophet after me." 1.
That was the only battle Muhammad engaged in without Ali accompanying him.
The death of Muhammad (632 CE)
Muhammad had been ailing for some time, but seemed to have recovered somewhat. He left his house to take part in prayers at the mosque, then returned to his quarters and died.
Ali had a strong claim to the leadership, both as one of Muhammad's closest assistants and as his cousin and son-in-law. But he was passed over for the leadership (see Saqifah). At first he refused to swear fealty to Abu Bakr, another prominent Muslim and Muhammad's father-in-law. In this he was followed by the Banu Hashims and a significant portion of Medina's Muslim community. They were known as the Rafidis, or "Refusers", and later as the Shi'at Ali, the party of Ali.
This is an extremely contentious issue, covered in detail in the Succession to Muhammad article. Muslims ultimately divided into two branches based on their political attitude towards this issue. The Shi'a argue that Muhammad, in accordance with God's command, designated Ali to succeed him, and that Ali was a victim of worldly intrigue; the Sunni consider that the community made a wise choice in uniting behind Abu Bakr.
The two Muslim groups also disagree on Ali's attitude towards Abu Bakr, and the two caliphs who succeeded him, Umar ibn al-Khattab and Uthman ibn Affan. The Sunnis tend to stress Ali's acceptance and support of their rule, while the Shi'a claim that he distanced himself from them.
Inheritance
Shi'a Muslims believe that Ali and Fatima, as well as the wives of Muhammad had an additional cause for disaffection with Abu Bakr [2]. The new caliph argued that the Muhammad's considerable landed property had been held by the prophet in trust for the community, and was rightfully the property of the state -- despite Ali's rejoinder that Muhammad's revelations included accounts of prophetic inheritance (Qur'an 27:16, 21:89). Abu Bakr gave state pensions to Muhammad's widows, but Muhammad's blood relatives, Ali, Fatimah and Ibn Abbas, did not receive even that much.
After Fatima's death, Ali again claimed her inheritance, but was denied with the same argument. The caliphs who followed Abu Bakr, Umar and Uthman, also refused to return the various properties, whether to Ali or to Muhammad's widows. Shi'a Muslims regard this as yet another instance of the persecution of Muhammad's lineage, the Ahl al-Bayt, at the hands of the caliphs they regard as usurpers. (Some of the hadith cited by both sides in this dispute can be found at [3].)
Succession to the caliphate
In 656 CE, the third caliph Uthman, was murdered in his own house, in Medina, by rebellious Muslim soldiers. Medina, now a large city and the capital of an empire stretching from Africa to Central Asia, fell into chaos. In the crisis, some Muslims turned to Ali, who had been for years a faithful and steady lieutenant of Muhammad and his successors, and urged him to seek the caliphate. Ali at first refused. He is said to have been horrified by the assassination of Uthman, and did not wish to appear to be profiting from the situation. But his supporters persevered, and Ali finally allowed himself to be proclaimed caliph.
Some opponents at the time claimed that he had connived at the murder of Uthman, or at the very least been negligent in seeking the murderers. However, most current and historical opinion absolves him of any blame. Besides his extremely high status in Shi'a Islam, he is also revered by Sunnis as the last of the truly exemplary successors of Muhammad.
For a fuller discussion of this and succeeding events, see First Islamic civil war.
Caliphate
Almost the first act of his caliphate was to put down a rebellion led by Talha and az-Zubayr (two eminent companions of Muhammad), who were urged on by Aisha, Muhammad's widow. In the view of Shi'as, she was a bitter enemy of Ali, and one of the chief hindrances to his advancement to the caliphate. The rebel army was defeated at the Battle of Basra (also known as the Battle of the Camel); Talha was killed, Zubayr fled and was killed later, and Aisha was captured and escorted with all respect to Medina, where she was given a pension.
Soon thereafter, Ali dismissed several provincial governors, some of whom were relatives of Uthman, and replaced them with trusted aides such as Malik ibn Ashter and Salman the Persian. Ali then transfered his capital from Medina to Kufa, the Muslim garrison city in what is now Iraq. The capital of the province of Syria, Damascus, was held by Mu'awiyah, the governor of Syria and a kinsman of Uthman, Ali's slain predecessor.
Mu'awiyah raised an army and marched against Ali, demanding vengeance for the death of Uthman. A prolonged battle took place in July 657 CE in the Battle of Siffin, near the Euphrates; the battle seemed to be turning in favor of Ali, Malik ibn Ashter being very close to Muawiyas camp, when a number of the opposing army, fixing copies of the Qur'an to the points of their spears, exclaimed that "the matter ought to be settled by reference to this book, which forbids Muslims to shed each other's blood."
At this point, the soldiers of Ali refused to fight any longer, and demanded that the issue be referred to arbitration. Ali and his followers are said to have disagreed over the choice of advocate for Ali. Ali wanted Malik ibn Ashter or Ibn Abbas; his followers are said to have objected. Finally, Abu Musa al Asha'ri was chosen as Ali's advocate. Amr ibn al-As, a veteran diplomat, was chosen to act for Mu'awiyah. It is claimed that `Amr persuaded Abu Musa that it would be to the advantage of Islam that neither candidate should reign, and asked him to give his decision first. Abu Musa having proclaimed that he deposed both Ali and Mu'awiyah, `Amr declared that he also deposed Ali, but invested Mu'awiyah with the caliphate. This decision greatly injured the cause of Ali, which was still further weakened by the loss of Egypt to Mu'awiya's forces.
Death
According to tradition, three Muslim zealots (purists later termed Kharijites) had agreed to assassinate Ali, Mu'awiyah and `Amr, as the authors of disastrous feuds among the faithful. The assassins sent against Mu'awiyan and `Amr failed; the only assassin who succeeded was the one who attacked Ali.
Ali suffered a mortal head wound the 19th of Ramadan while he was performing morning prayers in mosque in the city of Kufa. The sword that wounded was poisoned.
Before Ali died, when offered milk, he is said to have asked if his assassin, Abdur Rahman bin Muljam al Sarimi, had been offered milk as well. Also, when he noticed that the assassin's ropes had been tied painfully tight, he ordered them to be loosened. Ali further decreed that if he was not to survive, then Bin Muljam should be killed with no more than one stroke, as he had only struck Ali once.
Ali died on the 21st of Ramadan (three days after he was stabbbed) in the city of Kufa (Iraq) in 661 CE.
A splendid mosque called Mashad Ali was afterwards erected in the city at Najaf.
Descendants
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Ali had eight wives after Fatima's death, and in all, it is said, thirty-three children. He had two sons by Fatima, Hassan and Hussein. Hasan is said to have refrained from publicly claiming the caliphate, so as to prevent further bloodshed among Muslims. Mu'awiyah I thus became caliph and established the Umayyad dynasty of caliphs. Hassan is, however, revered by most Shi'a as the second imam; his brother Hussein is reckoned as the third, except by the Shi'a Ismaili, who consider him the second imam.
Ali's descendants by Fatima are known as sharifs, sayyeds, or sayyids. These are honorific titles in Arabic, sharif meaning 'noble' and sayyed/sayyid meaning 'lord' or 'sir'. As Muhammad's only descendants, they are respected by both Sunni and Shi'a, though the Shi'a place much more emphasis and value on the distinction.
Many Muslim notables are descendents of Muhammad. The Hashemite royal families of Jordan and Iraq, the Alaouite royal family of Morocco, and the Aga Khans of the Ismaili community claim direct descent from the prophet through Ali and Fatima. There are also many humbler sayyeds whose only distinction may be the title in front of their name, or the right to wear a black turban (a sign of Alid descent in some communities).
Legacy
Ali is respected not only as a warrior and leader, but as a writer and religious leader. The most famous collection of Ali's speeches and letters is the Peak of Eloquence (Arabic: Nahj al-Balāgha). A few famous quotes from it include:
- Inability is a disaster; patience is bravery; abstinence is a treasure, self-restraint is a shield; and the best companion is submission to Divine Will.
- Socialize with people in such a manner that when you die, they should weep for you and as long as you live, they should long for your company.
- Greed is a permanent slavery.
- Submission to God's will is the cure of the misery of the heart.
Ali is also reputed to have said:
- He who has a thousand friends has not a friend to spare, And he who has one enemy will meet him everywhere.
Muslim view
In the eyes of the Muslims Ali was remarkable for learning and wisdom, being seen as one of the most learned of his time, being the tutor of the knowledgeble Ibn Abbas, Umar and Abu Baker, and also succeeding Muhammad as the head of the Banu Hashim.
He is also recognized by Muslims for courage in battle, seen as one of the greates war heroes of Islam, single handedly killing multiple enemy heroes and countless soldiers in the battles of Badr, Uhud, Khandaq and Khaybar. He is also reqonised for as a striver for peace and unity among Muslims, initiating in peace talk before battle, as in Jamal and Siffin.
Just as Muslims do not picture God, or Allah, but reference him by his Ninety-nine Names or titles, so Muslims honor Muhammad, Ali, and other pious Muslims with titles of praise and add pious interjections after their names.
Sunni and Shi'a alike agree that Ali deserves these titles:
- Commander of the Faithful (Arabic: Amīr al-Mu'minīn)
- Father of Dust/Soil (Arabic: Abu Turab)
- Lion of God (Arabic: Asad-ullāh)
- (Please note that translation from Arabic to English may change the way the words are interpreted)
Many Muslims add the phrase "May God be pleased with him" (Arabic: radiallhu anu) after mentioning the name of a prominent or pious companion of Muhammad. He is seen as praised by Muhamamd as "my brother in this world and the next" and as a Aron to a second Moses. Both Shia and Sunnis agree that hating Ali nulifies Islam, and loving him is obligatory. He is greatly respected by most Muslims, the Ibadi might be the only dissenters.
Sunni view of Ali
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}} Sunnis hold Ali in high respect as one of the Ahl al-Bayt and the last of the Four Righteously Guided Caliphs. He was one of the first to convert; he was Muhammad's cousin; he was honored with the hand of Muhammad's daughter Fatima, a hounor Sunnis conclude is shared with Uthman, whom Sunni belive married two of Muhamamd biological daughters.
Sunnis also belive that there are some blemishes on Ali's character, such as him angrying Fatimah and Muhammad when he allegedly wanted to marry the daughet of Abu Jahl. He is also belived by Sunnis to have given his biological daghter, Umm Khultum bint Ali to marry Umar [4], [5], [6], when she was five years old, after giving in to public duress from Umar.
Although these events are regarded authentic by Sunni scholars, Sunni practice the doctrine of not mentioning the faults of the Sahaba, and dont mention these events, and rather talk only good about Ali. Sunni often portraying Ali as a lojal friend to Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar, even if they sometimes had frendly disagreences.
Sunni believe that Shi'a distort history when they argue that he withdrew from public life after losing his bid to be the first caliph. Sunnis say that he supported the first three caliphs loyally, named some of his sons after them[7], and gave Umar his daughter in marriage [8].
Shi'a view of Ali
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}} They hold Ali in extraordinary esteem; he is venerated as second only to Muhammad. Shia view him as not only as Muhammad's chosen successor, but also as holding a position of authority designated by God. Shia concluded that even if that was not the case, Ali should have still been the first Caliph, since he was by all and any standard the one most merited for the task.
Shia make several claims for Ali, believed to indicate Ali's special status, a few of them include:
- That he was born in the Kaaba.
- That he was the first male to convert to Islam.
- That he never worshipped idols.
- That Muhammed said "You are to me as Aron was to Moses, except there will be no prophet after me".
They also claim that Muhammad indicated in many times and in many ways his belief that Ali was his divinely appointed successor, and cite a number of hadith and verses from the Qur'an in support of that position. See Succession to Muhammad for further discussion.
In the Shi'a view, Ali's character, like Muhammad's, is considered perfect and unblemished. They celebrate the anniversaries of his death and birth and in the Shi'a version confession of faith (shahada) and call to prayer (adhan), there is an optional reference to Ali.
Sunnis feel that Shi'a have idolized Ali, sometimes giving him more attention, merit and honour than they give Muhammad, while Shi'a reject that.
Non-Muslim view of Ali
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}} Non-Muslim views of Ali have varied. Some, like the 19th century historian Carlyle, found him an attractive, romantic figure. Some later scholars, such as Lammens and Watt, dismissed Ali as pious but a poor leader. Wilferd Madelung, a specialist in Shi'a studies, takes a much more favorable view of Ali.
Nahj al-Balagha contains a long letter given to Malik ibn Ashter when he departed to succed Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, in which Ali gave thourough instructions on how to establish and uphold a government. The United Nations urged the Arab nations to use that letter as a model. ref
See also
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- Family tree of Ali ibn Abu Talib
- Imam Ali Mosque
- Shiites
- Ismailis
- Fatimids
- Hashemites
- Alawite
- Alevi
- Shia Imams
- Wali
- Succession to Muhammad
- Sahaba
- Misconceptions about the Shi'a
- Ahl Al-Bayt
- Nahj al Balagha
References
There are no English-language biographies specifically of Ali. Material for his biography must be extracted from the pages of general histories, or from biographies of Muhammad.
- Karen Armstrong -- Muhammad, Gollancz, 1991 (a popular biography)
- Alfred Guillaume -- The Life of Muhammad, Oxford University Press, 1955 (a reconstruction and translation of Ibn Ishaq).
- Ibn Sa'd -- The book of The Major Classes -- scattered volumes of English translation as issued by Kitab Bhavan, New Delhi (no date), and Ta-Ha Publishers, London, 1997 and 2000.
- Wilferd Madelung -- The Succession to Muhammad, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
- Tabari -- History of the Prophets and Kings, translation and commentary issued in multiple volumes by SUNY Press from 1987 to 1996; volumes 6-17 are relevant.
- William Montgomery Watt -- Muhammad at Mecca, 1953 and Muhammad at Medina, Oxford University Press, 1956
External links
- Biography from USC's MSA website
- Website devoted to the Life of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Election of Ali as Caliph
- Sayings of Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib The Commander of the Faithfull
- Imam Ali foundation
- Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib Nahjul Balaghaar:علي بن أبي طالب
de:Ali ibn Abi Talib et:‘Alī ibn Abī Tālib es:Ali Ibn Abi Talib fa:علی پسر ابوطالب fr:Ali ibn Abi Talib ko:알리 이븐 아비 탈리브 id:Ali ibn Abi Talib ms:Saidina Ali Abi Talib it:'Ali ibn Abi Tàlib he:עלי אבן אבו טאלב nl:Imam Ali ja:アリー・イブン＝アビー＝ターリブ nn:Ali bin Abu Talib pl:Ali ibn Abi Talib pt:Ali ibn Abi Talib fi:Ali ibn Abi Talib sv:Ali ibn Abi Talib th:อะลีย์ tr:Hz.Ali uk:Алі ібн Абі Таліб zh:阿里·伊本·艾比·塔里卜
